Transaction Cost Economics in Construction Industry

TCE asserts that transactions have distinct characteristics that explain how firm’s boundaries are drawn and when determine whether â€Å"market or hierarchy† will have the lower transaction costs in various circumstances. Asset specificity, uncertainty and frequency are the three variables of TCE that are used to characterise transactions. Williamson (1979) suggested four main forms of asset specificity, namely site specificity, physical asset specificity, dedicated assets and human asset specificity. Asset specificity refers to the degree to which the investments for a transaction are specific to that particular transaction. In other words it refers to the extent to which the resources required are available from a large number of sources†¦show more content†¦Construction industry’s workload is highly diversified. It involves numerous parties, various processes, different phases and stages of work, and many inputs from both the trades and specialists. Such workload and labour can be divided into two phases (Bajari and Tadelis, 2001). First, the design phase for the appearance, layout and function of buildings which involve consultants of various disciplines. Second, the actual construction process that directly produce the end product. Let’s discuss the second phase first. Upon approval of architecture and engineering plans by respective authorities, actual construction works begin. Construction firm would then need to decide whether to carry out the work on its own or engage market construction players. In view of the uniqueness and the need of wide range of technologies characteristic of construction industry, Costantino (1996) assert that economies of scale (i.e. faster construction time, reduce construction cost, reduce liability exposure and greater flexibility) can only be met by using a variety of resources that are generally not entirely available within a firm. In construction material and equipment context, market governance transaction prevail on the basis that the availability of many possible sources for construction firm to compare and choose from an array of suppliers on the basis of the best quality and price combination. The existence of many suppliersShow MoreRelatedDifferences Between Gaap And Gaap1700 Words   |  7 Pagesperforming accounting tasks. The U.S. GAAP revenue recognition rules allows for exceptions to certain transactions and requires companies to also follow regulations promulgated by the Securities and Exchange Commission. Conversely, the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) is a principle based system that advocates for certain accounting principles that should be applied to all contracts and industries. The IFRS standards are created by the International Accounting Standards Board. 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Opportunities Purpose Global Development †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: What Is The Opportunities Purpose Global Development? Answer: Introduction: The globalization term has obtained substantial emotive strength. It has the ability in offering exclusive opportunities for the purpose of truly global development, though it is not succeeding evenly. Markets are in the process of promoting competence through labor division and competition- a specialization that facilitates people and the economies in focusing on the things they perform best. According to Hirst, Thompson and Bromley (2015), globalization is the competition within the global market. The rate of growth of the nations that are of developing nature along with their attainment of companies that have been first-world owned designates that the urbanized world no longer holds the upper-hand economic development. Success that lies within this new global market needs the facility in accommodating the diversified needs of the different consumer goods. Companies can attain this through the innovations in product and procedure along with maximization of the profits. Companies that are emerging from the promising economies are pursuing the lead of the improved complement, concerning stocks and encouraging of the investment factor. This generally encourages the growth factor along with sharing of the appreciation and surpassing the previous expectations. This paper would focus on Amul, a dairy cooperative company that emerged from the developing nation of India, formed in 1950. Amul has been tipped as the biggest milk brand within Asia with it being available in 40 different countries. It has been exporting a wide assortment of products with its major markets being West Indies, US, Singapore, Philippines, China and Japan to name a few. Globalization and Business Conditions: The number of potentials gets much bigger once individuals consider more than the individuals. For instance, in case of Amul, a lot of people of people works in the various factories and offices it ahs overseas, each of them might be having their own perceptions on the subject of international business. As per Cooper and Ezzamel (2013), Amul works with various suppliers and many customers across the world, having their own employees, having certain level of biasness and viewpoints. Amul has to comply with global trade laws and regulations that are being impacted by the opinions of the overseas government executives. The bigger idea is that there are hardly ever views on global business that can be termed universal. His requires to impact on the ways managers take decisions, selecting among the substitutes and crafting plans of actions. It would be unwise in assuming that the practices which are adequate at one place and time would be similarly accepted in certain other situations. It might be the fact what one individual perceives to be good may be illegal and unethical to another. Acknowledging the diversified perceptions on the factor of globalization is useful in amplification of the perceptible confusion on the subject apparent in the press of the business. Articles on the primary page of newspaper might commemorate the financial returns of Amul, attaining through an effective chain of global supply, whereas, a synchronized magazines cover story might lead out an attack on the cost of humans connected with the factory closings, or other interference originated by globalization (Sun, et al. 2 015). The question that arises here is which one of them is right. There is high possibility of both the views being precise, depending on the ways one looks at this particular situation. Globalization is stated to be a phenomenon that is continuously in the move, a multiplicity of viewpoints might used in evaluating the globalizations impact, submission of meaningful insights into the management of activities within global business. The commencing point for such approaches is that global managers working in organizations like Amul need to relax their observations on the ways business is conducted in certain other parts of the world (Hitt, Li and Xu 2016). Each country comprises of its own economic conditions with people having various opinions on the suitability of several global activities of business. Simply being responsive to the conditions within the scenario of global business along with the multiple viewpoints is not supportive for individual managers who are encountering precise opportunities and issues. Awareness does not offer any help in deciding on the things that should be done about such factors. For more detailed analysis, managers need to spin to theo ries and models that are being urbanized by global business scholars over the precedent several decades. Globalization issues are often much complex where reactions based on instinct and gut feel is in all probabilities would be misguided, a dangerous factor to the long-term outlook of the firm (Scherer, Palazzo and Seidl 2013). Opportunities of Globalization on Business of Amul: Globalization has brought about enough benefits in developed economies like India. It takes in number of factors like trade, technology, competition, employment and organizational structure. Global Market: Most of the flourishing emerging markets in the developed countries are result of privatization of state owned industries. For Amul, it is a company based in Gujarat that expanded all over India with its products, attempted in expanding and extending their value chain to a global level (Kurtishi-Kastrati, 2013). Amul has been successful in its endeavor of expanding globally, reflecting through its presence in more than 40 countries. Amul has been exporting its consumer products, including products like ghee and cheese to countries like Australia, Middle East and USA where there is existence of high absorption of Non-residential Indians (NRIs). It believes in the fact that people might shift and live somewhere else, but their eating habits remain same for a lengthy time period. Global market presented Amul with lot of opportunities in marketing of its product, a decision that never required a second thought for Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF), owners of the brand Amul (Rottig 2016). Foreign Trade: Globalization has generated and extended global trade in the world. Things that were previously found only in developed economies are now available in other countries across the globe. The BactoScan approach used by Amul has been designed for fully-automatic, reliable willpower of the hygienic excellence of raw milk, used in evaluating incoming raw milk for avoiding contagion. BactoScan is a technology that is being used by developed countries like US and UK, which has been favored by Amul over a period of time. People can get access of any product from wherever they want. Amul has been able to establish itself in India over a period of 50 years, emerging as a brand that is believed by people for manufacturing quality products. It did not require much time in finding market share overseas, especially where the Indian population is more. Amuls venture into the foreign land has led India to enjoy comparative advantage being engaged with foreign trade. Competition: One of the most noticeable positive impacts of globalization is the developed quality of the products due to global competition. Services related to customer along with approaches like customer is the king to production have led to developed quality of products and services of Amul. In India, domestic companies like Amul have to see off foreign competition within local environment and then thrive hard to compete in the best possible manner in foreign market (Zaiceva and Zimmermann 2016). At the time when Amul decided to venture into Russia and USA, it came in riding on the goodwill it generated in India, which it requires to love up to (Bremmer 2014). This generates competition within the market and a situation where the fittest survives. Amul benefitted from the decision of Russia in lifting restrictions on the milk imports and other dairy products from India. However, the pricing of the milk in the global market was a factor at that point of time. The management required in taking a decision whether it would venture into the Russian market or delays its process. Russia imports around 8-10 lakh of milk powder per annum and the exports of Amul stood at 540 crore in 2014 (Wu and Chen 2014). Amul has made rapid progress in the global rankings, presently in the 13th position as per the latest data released by International Farm Comparison Network (IFCN). Amul is ranked well above other well known dairy companies like Muller of Germany, Mengniu of China, and Groupe Sodiaal of France. Diversity: Companies like Amul benefits from diversified workplace and customer base. In India too it has been managing a diversified workforce and customer base from a longer period of time, prone to varied tastes and culture that is different. The way it has managed the domestic workplace and different sorts of culture within India, it benefitted Amul immensely when it went overseas to capture the foreign market. Amuls dairy products are result of the diversified customer base that have always fostered innovation, as companies like Amul are pushed to constantly improve their products and services in meeting varied needs. Diversity in workplace offers challenges to the manager for mitigating the disagreements caused by misinterpretation (Cuervo-Cazurra and Ramamurti 2014). Managers of Amul get first-hand experience in the local market only harnessing diversitys productive authority and downplaying its challenges through acknowledgement. The same could be applied by them in global markets. Threats of Globalization for Amul: There are certain threats for Indian organizations even of Amuls stature when it goes global, with definite need for finding answers. These challenges can be internal as well as external as been described below: Internal: These are the challenges inherent to the organizations in making a real impact at the international level, companies like Amul need to strengthen themselves by getting rid of such issues. Cultural Impact: McKinsey in a study found that handling of a global business is one of the key challenges as it takes in different people having different orientation of culture to work mutually for a common goal is certainly difficult (Verbeke and Kano 2015). Wherever Amul went, their global success was based on the localization factor when pushing for the regular goal. Amul needs to develop their Indian managers with global mindset for understanding and managing the differences existing in culture. Strong Vision and Credentials: The introduction to bigger projects in India as compared to the global scale is restricted. Only few of the companies like LT, GMR have been successful in completing their global projects. Companies from emerging economies need to put forward a stronger vision and plan for their global path through the leverage of their experience in India, like Amul aspires to be the global leader in the dairy product market. External: There are certain challenges that are not in the control of the Indian companies or their decision makers. Slow Global Economic Growth: Due to the imperative slowdown in the European and USA markets, organizations are aggressively been pushing for the market distribution, impacting the margins. In the year 2012, the global GDP fell to 3.2 as compared to 4 per cent in 2011. The growth of GDP in the emerging markets and the developing countries were positioned at 5.3 per cent in 2013, augmenting to 5.7 per cent in 2014 (Sun, et al. 2015). Indian companies like Amul need to strategize their plans related to growth along with optimizing their resources for spirited challenges. Home versus Host Country effect on HRM: The idea of global competition has forced businesses in changing the ways they manage themselves at home and in abroad. The increase in the change rate along with technological advancement, high speed communication is all significant factors in contributing to these changes (Zaiceva and Zimmermann 2016). Although the global manager of an organization performs some of the basic functions to that of the local manager, he requires adjusting to more environment and variables. International managers need to address a wider range of activities than their domestic counterparts. These take in the process of global taxation, coordinating the rate of exchange and foreign rates, international rearrangement along with the global orientation program for the employees posted overseas. The Human Resource managers working within a global scenario encounters issues addressing the HR problems of the employees fitting in to more than one nationality (Wu and Chen 2014). Hence, these HR managers need setting up of different systems of HRM for different set of locations. The Human Resource managers within the domestic environment administer the programs of HR to employees from one single nationality. The HR manager of Amul working in Mumbai would cater to one particular set of HR policies to that of one working in Chennai. However, the HR manager working in USA and Australia needs to have various HRM systems as per the nationalities working in the office. For global business managers they need greater involvement in the employees personal lives. The HR manager of Amul in Russia needs to make certain that an executive who is positioned in the foreign country understands all the facets of the package of compensation offered in the foreign project like taxes, living cost. The HR managers need to review the eagerness of the employees family to relocate, supporting the family in amending with the foreign culture through training in cross-culture (Zhou and Guilln 2015). For domestic, managers involvement is only limited to the offering of insurance programs or providing of the transport amenities. There is heightened publicity to the risks in global assignments. These risks take into account health and safety related issues of employees and their families. According to Bremmer (2014), a major facet of such risk is potential terrorism. MNCs need to consider this factor while sending their employees on global assignments. It is for the global HR or business managers to persuade the employee for a shift and seeing to it that he does not return from the assignment pre-maturely. Such a factor would lead to high direct and indirect costs. So, the global managers need to play tactically. The Global business managers need to deal with more external factors than their domestic counterparts. For instance, the practices of staffing overseas, local conduct codes, impact of religious groups. If Amul plans to do business in Turkey and is sanctioned license by the Turkish government for setting up a Turkish subsidiary, the Indian company is legally obliged to offer employment to local people . Conclusion: Globalization has its effects on companies, especially the ones that are coming out of the emerging economies, like Amul. Though it has opportunities of global market and diversity to play with, issues are plenty to deal with for its survival. Managers need to be ably trained for sustaining the global market pressure and work as per the host country norms. Efficient people along with competent technology hold key for MNCs out of the emerging economies to make a mark at the global stage. A differentiation between the global and domestic business managers have also been done that states global managers have more tasks to perform than their local counterpart. References: Bremmer, I., 2014. The new rules of globalization.Harvard Business Review,92(1), pp.103-107. Cooper, D.J. and Ezzamel, M., 2013. Globalization discourses and performance measurement systems in a multinational firm.Accounting, Organizations and Society,38(4), pp.288-313. Cuervo-Cazurra, A. and Ramamurti, R. eds., 2014.Understanding multinationals from emerging markets. Cambridge University Press. Hirst, P., Thompson, G. and Bromley, S., 2015.Globalization in question. John Wiley Sons. Hitt, M.A., Li, D. and Xu, K., 2016. International strategy: From local to global and beyond.Journal of World Business,51(1), pp.58-73. Kurtishi-Kastrati, S., 2013. The effects of foreign direct investments for host country's economy.European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies,5(1), p.26. Moeller, M., Harvey, M., Griffith, D. and Richey, G., 2013. The impact of country-of-origin on the acceptance of foreign subsidiaries in host countries: An examination of the liability-of-foreignness.International Business Review,22(1), pp.89-99. Rottig, D., 2016. Institutions and emerging markets: effects and implications for multinational corporations.International Journal of Emerging Markets,11(1), pp.2-17. Scherer, A.G., Palazzo, G. and Seidl, D., 2013. Managing legitimacy in complex and heterogeneous environments: Sustainable development in a globalized world.Journal of Management Studies,50(2), pp.259-284. Sun, S.L., Peng, M.W., Lee, R.P. and Tan, W., 2015. Institutional open access at home and outward internationalization.Journal of World Business,50(1), pp.234-246. Verbeke, A. and Kano, L., 2015. The new internalization theory and multinational enterprises from emerging economies: A business history perspective.Business History Review,89(3), pp.415-445. Wu, J. and Chen, X., 2014. Home country institutional environments and foreign expansion of emerging market firms.International Business Review,23(5), pp.862-872. Zaiceva, A. and Zimmermann, K.F., 2016. Returning home at times of trouble? Return migration of EU enlargement migrants during the crisis. InLabor migration, EU enlargement, and the great recession(pp. 397-418). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Zhou, N. and Guilln, M.F., 2015. From home country to home base: A dynamic approach to the liability of foreignness.Strategic Management Journal,36(6), pp.907-917.

The Prussian Baron Von Steuben, Being A Newcomer To The Essays

The Prussian Baron von Steuben, being a newcomer to the Revolutionary cause in America, was in a position to see many of the deficiencies in military discipline and their causes. The reasons for his unique insight may have been due to the fact that he was distanced from the revolutionary ideals in America, and as a result, was able to better observe and understand them; and ultimately use them to shape his new and successful form of discipline in the Continental Army. Most of the commanders of the Continental Army, from the commander in chief to the lower officers had subscribed to the traditional European method that relied on fear to achieve discipline. This method of fear was probably not essential, and had little if any effect in the early days of the war because the soldiers were mostly fighting for their own ideologies. To the soldiers, the commanders were of little importance. The soldiers were going to fight their own fight, and leave the battle when they felt it necessary. The soldier saw himself as a volunteer, a citizen fighting in a group of citizens, and as a result did not respond well to the traditional forms of discipline. The soldier knew it wasn't necessary for him to serve, and he knew that he would not be looked down upon for not serving or leaving the army by his fellow revolutionaries. He had the freedom to chose how he wished to serve the revolution, and military service was not an obligation. One aspect of the traditional European system that Baron von Steuben felt needed change was the relationship between the officers and the soldiers. Officers in the Continental Army felt it was necessary to distance themselves from the common soldiers, as an officer had an obligation as a gentleman as well. This division was along social lines, and by separation, the officers felt the common soldiers would show even greater respect. Royster describes this accurately by saying that the officers tried "to make themselves haughty objects of the soldiers' awe." (215) Steuben did several things to put the officers and the soldiers on common ground. First, sergeants were no longer to do the training and drilling of soldiers. Officers were encouraged to train, drill, and march with their soldiers. They were also encouraged to eat with the common soldiers as well, whenever possible. The officers needed to show love of the soldiers to earn their respect, and in doing this the officers needed to set themselves as an example to the soldiers by overachieving, rather than distancing themselves and underachieving in the eyes of the soldier. Before Steuben arrived, the forms of drills, training, and discipline in the Continental Army were mainly achieved at the discretion of each particular officer. There was no set standard for drills and training, and each battalion, company, and regiment had different methods. Baron von Steuben set a standard that became universal in the army and all soldiers and officers were to follow it. Through constant repetition of these rather simplified drills and training methods, coupled with the newly evident compassion and caring being shown by the officers, soldiers soon began to show a level of pride and professionalism in doing their duties in the Continental Army. Steuben catered to the needs and ideologies of the men in the Continental Army. He knew that soldiers who felt that military service was not a necessity, would often question authority. When given an order many soldiers would ask 'Why?' This was what Steuben realized and built his form of discipline around. If a soldier asked why, and there was a good reason for it, then the soldier would ultimately obey the order. This is why the uniformity and simplicity of Steuben?s system was so successful in the Continental Army. Steuben's method of discipline and training was so successful for one main reason, it was catered to the soldier and not to the officer. It had the ultimate result of making the soldier feel like a soldier and not like a volunteer. It established a sense of pride in the soldiers and in the job they did. By the later years of the war, native courage, virtue, and liberty were not enough to encourage soldiers. Steuben method created a professionalism in the Continental Army which, along with the ideologies of the men, was enough to keep the moral of the soldier high despite the many hardships of winter camps like Valley Forge and Morristown.

The Catcher In The Rye Essays - J. D. Salinger, Literary Realism

The Catcher In The Rye Essays - J. D. Salinger, Literary Realism The Catcher in the Rye I. Critical Biography J.D. Salinger is an American author who wrote the famous novel "The Catcher in the Rye." It was written in 1951, (encyclopedia, Pg. 60). It ranks as a minor classic. This story is popular among American high school and college students. Salinger was born in New York City in 1919. His full name is Jarome David Salinger. Salinger has written several other books in his life. Salinger wrote some later fiction that centered on the Glass Family. These books included Franny and Zooey, Rise High the Roof Beam, and Carpenters on Seymore. He writes extremely comical books. II. Synopsis The book "The Catcher in the Rye," was an interesting novel. It includes a teenage boy named Holden. Holden just got kicked out of a prep school named Pensey, because he did not keep his grades up. He knew he was going home that next week. One night a few days before he was getting sent home he left the school. He really had no idea where he was going. He couldn't go home because he wasn't sure whether his parents knew he was kicked out of Pensey or not. First off he goes to a hotel to stay. He had many experiences that night. One example was when he had a prostitute in his room at one minute and was getting beat up the next. Needless to say he had some bad experiences that night. He was in search of self-understanding and the meaning of life. Holden is trying to decide what to do with his life and where to go. He finally goes home to see his sister, with whom he feels close to. He thinks of going west and being a deaf-mute. When he is all packed up to go, he leaves a note with his sister at the school. She meets him and tells him that she is going with him. He tells her no. Then he realizes that the idea of this trip was unrealistic. He goes home and sees his parents. His parents enrolled into another school. III Analysis of the Theme This story teaches a good lesson on how to deal with situations in life the right way. In this story Holden runs from his problems to make them better. I saw all the trouble that it got him into. First he should have stayed in school or at least gone home to face his parents after he was kicked out. Holden was in search of himself. He wanted to see what he could do or be. He went about it all the wrong way. He should have applied himself at the first school that he went to and prevent so many problems. Then he would go further quicker. I learned not to run from your problems because they will always catch up with you. IV. Character The main character in this story is Holden. He is a teenage boy that is having a hard time staying in school. He is not the conceited type or the really shy type. He was really confused and had no idea what direction his life should follow when he went to Pencey Prep. He had to find out who he was on his little adventure when he left Pencey. It seemed like everything depressed him. He really learns fast. In about two days he went from wondering where he was going to get it all back together. He realized who and what was important to him. He is a pretty smart and level headed guy. He learned quite a bunch on this little adventure. He had a different way of looking at things than most people. Everything is really depressing to him. The most important person in his life is his sister. He had a few girlfriends along the way, but he did not know how to get along with them very well. V. Conclusion This was a really good novel. It is the type of book that once you pick it up you cannot put it down. It has many good characters in this book. The values in this book are great. It has valuable lessons in it. It relates to many teenagers. That is probably why it is popular among high school and college students. I was really impressed by and enjoyed this book. I definitely see why it is on the list. I would recommend this book to all my friends. This is one of the best books that I have read. This has many life lessons in this book that I can relate to. The lessons in this book will really help

Aristotles concept of justice Essay Example for Free

Aristotle’s concept of justice Essay In his book The Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle discusses the concept of justice in Book V. Justice is used with its many different connotations. However, in order to explain the statement that justice can only be found in the laws established by the state I would like to point out the last two types of justice and the notion of equity Aristotle refers to in his book. The first is natural justice, true for everyone, and next to that there is conventional justice which can differ in different societies and there is the notion of equity that works in unusual cases. With understanding these three concepts we can reach to the conclusion that according to Aristotle justice can not only be found in the laws established by the state and he is right in claiming such an idea. Anyone who is a virtuous person can also be just. But not everyone who is just is also virtuous. Would you consider someone who kills the murderer of his wife a murderer? Would you put him in the same position as Jack the Ripper? Do you think justice is protected by the law? Is it just to stone adulteresses to death even if it complies with the law? Which law is just and which is not? What are the criteria? Are the laws of the state enough to maintain justice?Such questions can be boosted up to thousands if one starts to think about justice, itsconnotations and the relation between justice and law. The debate is a long-lasting one. In his book The Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle discusses the concept of justice in Book V. Justice is used with its many different connotations. There is particular justice, distributive justice, reciprocal justice, political and social justice, domestic justice, natural and conventional justice. I would like to point out the last two types of justice in order to understand Aristotle’s idea of law and justice relation in a state. According to Aristotle, there is natural justice, true for everyone, and next to that there is conventional justice which can differ in different societies. Natural justice is the kind of justice that can be applied to every human being regardless of nation, race, religion, etc. It has the same validity everywhere and do not depend on acceptance. Aristotle argues that â€Å"the things which are not just by nature but by human enactment are not everywhere the same, since constitutions are not the same, though there is  by one which is everywhere by nature the best† (124). Accordingly, the conventional justice is set by the society and in some cases by the rulers of the society. However, Aristotle suggests that, for the laws established by the state, a law can be just whether it is for the advantage of the law makers or the rulers or the dominant class. In The Nichomachean Ethics, he says that â€Å"the laws†¦on all subjects aim at the common advantage either of all or of the best or of those who hold power†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (108). He adds that every kind of conventional justice is created in one way from the natural justice and it is normal that they may differ from one society to another. For instance it is by the law to drive on a certain side in Turkey and in Britain people drive on the other side of the road. Both laws are created to maintain justice and order. However there are laws which are created by the state such as the law that women have to wear veils which seems to us not just but what is important to Aristotle is not what we think but how that society with that particular law is affected. As long as the law works for the society, regardless of its rightness, it maintains justice. Let’s give an example, at the times of Roman Empire the gladiators fight with each other or with lions, they know that they are going to die at the arena but they do not show any fear, they fight with their honors and they die with an honorable death. Mentioning that laws are created to be functional, to stabilize and control the society, Aristotle talks about the â€Å"equitable justice† in which he stresses that there are cases in which the universal law or justice does not suit to the case in hand. He suggests that laws guide people in the direction of justice but they do not encompass all the cases about justice or injustice. In such conditions he suggests that the judge interferes and corrects â€Å"the law where it is defective owing to its universality† (133). Equity means the correction of the law when it is too abstract for the situation in hand. Aristotle here suggests that the judge or the legislator should find the balance and give the right decision in such situations. Taking these ideas into consideration, according to Aristotle, the laws of  the state are enough to maintain justice for their people only to a certain extent because in some cases the decision making authority is not the law but the jud ge. I think Aristotle is right in making such a claim because of many reasons. First of all, if the conventional laws are the extensions of natural laws and the natural laws are universal and do not change in any situation but still there are circumstances in which the natural law is tooabstract for the case and the judge and the legislator is the one who is to adapt the law to the case, we can not say that either the natural laws or the conventional laws (the laws established by the state) maintains the justice. Furthermore, if there arecases in which the law does not work, we can not say that the laws established by the state maintain the justice at all times unless we see the starting argument as a generalization. However it is also not possible to know the qualities of the judge whether he is biased toward the case that he balances with the law. Accordingly there may be some cases in which justice may not be maintained because of the origin (in Aristotle’s words â€Å"universality†) of the law does not cover the case or because of the judge’s personal qualities. Consequently if the conventional laws are the extensions of natural laws and the natural laws are universal and do not change in any situation but still there are circumstances in which the natural law is too abstract for the case and the judge and the legislator is the one who is to adapt the law to the case, we can not say that either the natural laws or the conventional laws (the laws established by the state) maintains the justice. Aristotle’s concept of justice. (2016, Jul 25).

Postmodern in planning theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Postmodern in planning theory - Essay Example Examining the philosophies of town planning in regards to postmodernism then provide different insight into the approach which is taken to build and reconstruct a town with ideologies of the modern city. When looking at the concept of postmodernism, it can be seen that the identity of culture and society is the driving force of implementing new developments with cities. The philosophies of postmodernism are then defined by forces in society which are creating the changes and the new systems and pieces of architecture which are being set in urban developments. The concept of the postmodern is one which is identified as the celebration of difference and suspicion of the truth (Allmendinger, 25). Many consider it a paradox, specifically because it identifies art, creativity, culture and other facets of life in multidimensional respects. These dimensions are based on creating a definition of completeness to a given arena. This is combined with the idea of creating completeness from the sense of the modern, which is based on post – industrial methodologies of production as well as information as a driving force in society. The changes which society makes in relation to these dimensions then becomes the celebration of difference and the acceptance of diversity within a given area. These driving forces then create an understanding of the conditions of modern life, which is what becomes attributed to the making of the postmodern city (Allmendinger, 28). The concept of postmodernism and the main philosophies then become directly attributed to the building of a city, art, architecture and other applications within society. The main concept is to promote the same modern principles of what it means to be a contemporary city while creating a collage of social and cultural differences which can be celebrated. These are combined with various types of diversity and practices in the city, all which can be developed and

Water pollution Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Water pollution - Research Paper Example Water pollution has turned out to be a global threat that significantly affects the existence of humans,animals and plant.Water pollution is contamination of water ecosystems such as rivers,ground waters,oceans and lakes.It occurs through direct or indirect discharge of pollutants into water bodies without proper treatment. Polluted water is the main causes of human infections and deaths through waterborne diseases such as diarrhea and typhoid fever. This portfolio report seeks to give detailed investigations on leading causes of water pollution and efforts being made to control water pollution. There are various factors that contribute to the problems of water pollution namely, Industrial waste, sewage, acid rain and surface runoff. There are not many techniques of controlling this pollution and currently many researches are being carried out with the aim of finding helpful solution to these problems. The first major causes of water pollution include industrial waste and sewage that are discarded into water bodies. Most of these industrial and sewage waste contains chemicals some of which reacts with water forming toxic substances. These toxic substances are very harmful for both aquatic organisms and human beings when consumed. As the wastes, decay it uses up oxygen and this can affect most of aquatic organisms since they depend on the oxygen in water to survive. Large accumulation of these wastes into the river blocks of waterways other clogs on the vital organs such as fish gills making it impossible for them to breathe thus causing death. Chemicals from these wastes also find their ways in the bodies of a human being when the water is used for irrigation and it contaminate plants and transmit infection to farm employees and consumers (Agarwal, 2005). A solution to this kind of water pollution would be frequent cleaning of affected rivers and carrying out water quality testing to determine the level of oxygen and different chemicals present in water. This c an be done through analyses of water samples in the laboratory for both physical and chemical properties. Industries should also refrain from discharging their waste into rivers. Currently, many industries are using ion exchange technology to remove magnesium and calcium that causes water hardness. Ion exchange can process a wide range of chemicals and provide selective recovery. It consists of columns filled with resin beads that provide a large surface are for anion and cation sites. During the exchange, anionic resins exchange hydroxyl ions for negatively charged chlorides, chromates and sulfates. Cationic resins exchange hydrogen ions (H+) for positively charged ions such as cadmium, nickel, sodium and copper. This technology has helped in removing most toxic chemicals from water thus reducing water pollution (Rao, 2006). Another cause of water pollution is acid rain. It results from burning of fossil fuels having a high level of sulfur. Burning oil and petrol from industries an d heavy commercial vehicles releases carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. After combining with water droplets in the atmosphere they results to formation of weak solutions of nitric and sulfuric acids. When this solution undergoes precipitation they fall as acid rain. As this acidic rain falls into water bodies, it is weakened but as time goes, it increases and eventually lowers the Ph of water. This increases the acidity levels of water bodies and destroys aquatic life. It also increases the acidity levels of soils, which can kill plants because it interferes with soil nutrients. Introduction of low sulfur diesels has helped in reducing the level of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide released during combustion. Invention of selective catalytic reduction technology which uses ad blue solution has also helped in reducing emissions from heavy vehicles. Ad blue is a solution of urea in water and is mostly used in diesel engines of heavy trucks. The ad blu e solution helps